South American Spanish Dialectology
Country Summaries
Buenos Aires: porteños, Andalusian; interior: cuyanos, conservative.
/ʎ/, /ʝ/ → [ʒ] (zheísmo)
(porteño, south through Patagonia and east of a line running from Córdoba to Bariloche)
/ʎ/, /ʝ/ → [ʃ] (sheísmo)
(Buenos Aires)
/ʎ/, /ʝ/ → [ʒ], [ʝ]
(Santiago del Estero)
/r/ → [r̥]
(interior, North)
/s/ → [h] before another consonant:
esto → [ˈe̞ʰto]
(popular speech)
/r/ → [∅] when final in infinitive:
mirar → [mira]
(some areas, rapid speech)
Andalusian; very early in highlands, later type brought during late colonial period elsewhere.
/ʎ/ ≠ /ʝ/: halla [haʎa] ≠ haya [aja]
/s/ → [h] when syllable final (llanos)
/x/ → [h]
/r/ → [ʐ] (antiplano)
V → [∅] (vowel reduction), in the unstressed syllable, following or preceeding primary stress, is very common: Potsí, ofsina, cochs
/ado/ → ['ao] (llanos)
/tʃ/ → [t͡s]
/x/ → [ç] before e and i
/r/ → [ʐ]
/tɾ/ → [tʐ]
/s/ → [h]
/f/ → [ɸ]:
fabla → [ɸabla]
/ʎ/ → [ʝ] (yeísmo): cayó, calló → [kaˈjo]
/k/, /ɡ/, /x/ palatalized before front vowel: queso → [ˈceːso]; guía → [ˈʝia]; jinete → [çiˈn̪eːt̪e]
/ado/ → ['ao] (as in Venezuela, Cuba, Costa Rica and Colombia)
/tʃ/ → [ʃ]: Chile → [ˈʃiːle] (lower-class)
/tʃ/ → [t͡s], [t̪ˢ] (upper-class)
[h]+[β̞], [h]+[ɣ̞] → [f], [x], after /s/ → [h]:
resbaló → [rɛfaˈloː];
rasgó → [raˈxoː]
/ɾn/ → [nn]: jornada → [xonˈn̪aː]
/bl/ → [ul]: inolvidable → [in̪olˈβ̞jaːule]
/x/ → [h]
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any consonant or after a semivowel:
verde → ['βerde], not ['βerðe]
Eastern Cordillera
/r/, /tɾ/, -/ɾ/ → [ʐ], [tʐ], -[ʐ] (by assibilation)
/ʎ/ and /ʝ/ distinguished
Nariño
Similar to neighboring highland Ecuador.
V → [∅] (vowel reduction), in unstressed syllables (partes → [parts], etc.)
/'ado/ ↛ ['ao]
/s/ apicodental, tensely grooved, and strongly sibilant (cf. highland Mexico and Bolivia, and to some extent Peru)
/s/ → [z] (word final before vowel, and even intervocalically, sometimes)
Antioquia
/s/ → [ʃ] (apicoalveolar) (in many speakers)
/ʝ/ so tense it is heard as an affricate [ʝ̂], intervocalically
Cauca-Valle
"Standard" Spanish.
/r/ not assibilated
/s/ not apicoalveolar
/ʎ/ and /ʝ/ not distinguished
lacks weak consonantismo of the coasts
/n/ → [m] (word final before a pause or a vowel)
Coastal Colombia
Similar to Caribbean.
/s/ → [h] or [∅]
/n/ → [ŋ] when word-final before a pause or a vowel
/r/ and /l/ → [r], [l], [ʎ] when word final
/tʃ/ → [tʲ]
/t/ → [k] in diminutives: momentito → [momen'tiko] (also common in Colombia, Cuba)
/r/, /tɾ/, -/ɾ/ → [ʐ], [tʐ], -[ʐ] (by assibilation) (except in Guanacaste and on Pacific coast)
/n/ → [ɲ] when word final before pause or vowel: en amor → [eɲa'mor]
/ʝ/ weakens or disappears when intervocalic
/s/ → [h] (Guanacaste, Pacific coast)
/r/ → [ɹ]
/s/ → [h] or [∅]:
disfrutar → ['difrutar];
fresco → ['freco];
despues → [de'pue]
/n/ → [ŋ] when word-final before a pause or a vowel, or simply nasalization of the preceeding vowel
/r/ → [r̥]
/tʃ/ → [ʃ]
/r/ → -[l] when word-final
/ado/ → ['ao] (as in Venezuela, Cuba, Costa Rica and Colombia)
/t/ → [k] in diminutives: momentito → [momen'tiko] (also common in Colombia, Cuba)
/s/ → [h] or [∅] when syllable final
/x/ → [h]
/n/ → [ŋ] when word-final before a pause or a vowel
/ʎ/ → [ʝ]
/ɾ/ → semivowel: carne → ['kaine] (in the north)
/ɾ/ → [l]: carne → ['kalne] (Santo Domingo)
/ɾ/ → doubling of consonent: carne → ['kanne]
/r/ → [r̥] (as in Cuba)
/r/ → [ʀ̥] tierra → ['tjeʀ̥a] (extreme Southeast)
Division between Costa and Sierra. Coast has usual features of costeño Spanish.
/s/ ↛ [h] or [∅] when syllable final; pronounced with deliberate tenseness (serrano, as in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru)
V → [∅] (vowel reduction), in unstressed syllables:
oficina → [of'sina];
accidentes → [aksi'dents];
pase usted → [pas'sted]
(serrano)
/ʎ/ → [ʒ]:
valla → ['βaʒa]; opposed to /j/ = [j]
(central core)
/s/ → [z] when word final before vowel:
las aguas → [laz 'aɣwas]
(central core; almost unique in America)
/s/ → [h] or [∅] when syllable final (lowlands)
/ɾ/ → [r](lowlands)
/ado/ → ['ao] (lowlands)
Phonology lies between the highland conservatism of Mexico, Colombia, and the Andes, and the lowland "relaxed" trends of coastal Spanish America.
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any consonant or after a semivowel:
verde → ['βerde], not ['βerðe]
/x/ → [h]
/x/ → [∅] intervocally in emphatic expressions:
pendejo → [pen'deo];
México → ['meiko]
/s/ → [h] or [θ] when syllable final
/ʎ/ → [ʝ] (yeísmo)
Resembles Costa Rican more than El Salvadoran.
/r/, /tɾ/, -/ɾ/ → [ʐ], [tʐ], -[ʐ] (by assibilation)
/x/ → [h]
/ʝ/ weakens or disappears when intervocalic: capilla → [ka'pia]
/s/ tensely grooved and strongly sibilant (cf. highland Mexico and Andes)
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any consonant or after a semivowel:
verde → ['βerde], not ['βerðe]
/ʝ/ weakens or disappears when intervocalic: capilla → [ka'pia]
/x/ → [h]
/f/ → [ɸ] (most of population)
/ɾ/ → [l] when syllable final (some areas in interior)
/l/ → [ɾ] when syllable final (some areas in interior)
/n/ → [ɲ] when word final: en amor → [eɲa'mor]
/s/ → [h] before another consonant: esto → [ˈe̞ʰto]
/s/ → [h] when word initial after a vowel: la semana → [la'hemana] (many areas)
/s/ → [h] when intervocalic within a word: presidente → [prehi'ðente] (many areas)
/s/ → [θ] (some speakers)
Intonation, tendency to lengthen the articulation of /s/, general preference for the consonant over the vowel.
/s/ → [h] or [∅]
/e/ in closed syllable more open than the peninsular vowel
V → [∅] (vowel reduction), in the unstressed syllable, following or preceeding primary stress, is very common:
trastos → [ˈtɾasts];
pesos, pesas, peces → [ˈpesᵊs];
pastas, pastes, pastos → [ˈpasts]
/x/ (jota) prepalatal or postpalatal depending on vocalic environment
/x/ → [h] (Southern Coasts)
/x/ → [χ] (Oaxaca, Mayan influence)
/ʎ/ and /ɣ/ leveled to one phoneme
/ʝ/ weakens or disappears when intervocalic: bella → [beja], capilla → [ka'pia]; sometimes becomes [ʒ]
/ʝ/ → [ʒ] when intervocalic: caballo → [kaβ'aʒo] (Oaxaca, elsewhere)
/n/ → [ŋ] before a pause or an initial vowel in following word (Southern Mexico, Yucatán)
/r/ → [z̺] (uncommon, perhaps attitudinal)
/ɾ/ has retroflex variant [ɽ] (Yucatán)
[t͡s], [t͡ɬ], [ʃ] due to influence from local languages like Nahuatl: tlapalería → [t͡ɬapaleˈɾia]; Xola → [ˈʃola]
/tʃ/ → [ʃ]: (Northern Western Mexico, and variants influenced by Mayan languages)
/d/ → [∅] when intervocalic in many contexts
/x/ → [h]
/x/ → [∅] when intervocalic, especially between non-front vowels: trabajo → [tra'βao]
/ʝ/ → [∅] when intervocalic with /e/ and /i/: gallina → [ga'ina]; sello → ['seo]; calle → ['cae]
/i/, /e/ → [ij], [ej] (hypercorrection): María → [ma'rija]; vea → ['veja]
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any non-nasal consonant:
algo → ['algo], not ['alɣo]; alba → ['alba]; arde → ['arde]
/n/ → [ɲ] when word final at end of syntagma (muy bien) or before vowel (bien hecho)
/s/ → [h] or [∅] when syllable final or word final (very widespread in all but most formal contexts)
/r/ → [ɾ] (speakers for whom Spanish is a second language)
/ɾ/, /r/ → [ɹ] (speakers for whom Spanish is a second language)
/tʃ/ → [ʃ]:
muchacho → [muʃaʃo] especially when not word-initial
(Panama City; less educated speakers)
/d/ → [∅] when intervocalic
/d/ → [t] or most often [∅] at end of syntagma
/n/ → [ɲ] when word final at end of syntagma (muy bien) or before vowel (bien hecho)
/ɾ/, /l/ → [∅] when syllable final, especially /ɾ/ at end of infinitives (/r/ more so than /l/)
(lower classes, countryside)
/ɾ/, /l/ → [h] (or less frequently [∅]) before a consonant (/r/ more so than /l/) (lower classes, countryside)
/s/ → [h] or [∅] when syllable final or word final (uniform except in some careful, professional speech)
/d/ → [ɾ] when intervocalic:
adobe → [aɾobe]
(afro-antillanos)
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any consonant or after a semivowel:
verde → ['βerde], not ['βerðe] (afro-antillanos)
/ʎ/ and /ʝ/ distinguished
/ʎ/ → [ɟ͡ʝ] when intervocalic (frequently)
/tr/ → alveolarized ???
/r/, /ɾ/ ↛ [ʐ]
C → [∅] in word final position (mostly)
/t/, /d/ → [tᵞ], [dᵞ](frequency unclear)
/d/ → [t] (or sometimes /ɾ/) when syntagma-final:
amistad → [amistat]
/b/, /d/ → [∅] when intervocalic
/b/ → [v] (including when word-initial)
/x/ → [ç]
/s/ → [h] when syllable-final and word-final (in almost all cases)
/s/ → [∅] when syntagma-final (mostly)
/n/ → [ŋ] (only sporadically)
C#V → C[ʔ]V
/ʎ/ ≠ [ʝ] (highlands of the south, Cuzco, Puno)
/ʎ/ → [ʝ] (highlands of the north, especially among urban, well-educated class)
/n/ → [ŋ] (highlands)
/tʃ/ → [ʃ]: (sometimes)
/r/ → [ʐ]
/r/ → [ʒ]
mirar → [miʒaʒ]
(south, from Cuzco to Puno)
V → [∅] (vowel reduction), in the unstressed syllable, following or preceeding primary stress, is very common: Potsí, ofsina, cochs
/b/, /d/, /g/, /y/ ↛ [∅] entre vocales(Cuzco)
/b/, /d/, /g/, /y/ → [∅] entre vocales: trabajo → [tra'ajo]; cansada→ [kans'aa] mantequilla → [mante'kia]; rodilla → [rod'ia]; brillo → [br'io] (strong tendency in Lima)
/s/ ↛ [h]
/x/ → [h]
/n/ → [ŋ] when word final
/s/ → [h] or [∅] when syllable final
/r/ → [l] when syllable final (lambdacismo):
verdad → [βelda]
(30% in San Juan; lower classes, rural speakers)
/b/, /d/, /g/ → [b], [d], [g] (occlusive) after any consonant or after a semivowel:
verdad → [bel'da]
(tendancy)
/tʃ/ → [tj]
noche → [notje]
(except parts of southwest)
/r/ → [ʀ̥] tierra → ['tjeʀ̥a] (practically all of the country)
United States
/ʎ/, /ʝ/ → [ʒ] → [ʃ] ([ʃ] not as common as in Buenos Aires)
/s/ → [h] when preconsonantal (except in careful speech)
/n/ → [ŋ] when word-final (uniformly)
/d/ → [∅] when intervocalic (frequently, in all registers)
/x/ = [x]
For the most part same as Caribbean.
/x/ → [h] (as in all of Colombia)
/s/ → [h] or [∅]
/r/ and /l/ → [r], [l], [ʎ], or doubling of following consonant, when word final
/ado/ → ['ao]
/ʎ/ → [ʝ] (yeísmo): cayó, calló → [kaˈjo]
/t/ → [k] in diminutives: momentito → [momen'tiko] (also common in Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic)
voseo (Zulia and some parts of Falcón and Trujillo)
Táchira, Mérida, and Trujillo
The articulation is more like highland Colombia.
/s/, /l/, and /r/ when syllable-final are distinguished and clearly pronounced.